Ruby Notes 4 Statements and Control Structures

A sequential program that are executed one line of code after the other without branching or repetition.

x = ARGV[0].to_f # Convert first argument to a number
y = ARGV[1].to_f # Convert second argument to a number
sum = x + y      # Add the arguments
puts sum         # Print the sum

Alter the sequential execution, or flow-of-control, of a program with Ruby’s control structures.

Conditionals
Loops
Iterators and blocks
Flow-altering satements like return and break
Exceptions
The special-case BEGIN and END statements
The esoteric control structures known as fibers and continuations

Conditionals

 if expression
     code
 end

The code between if and end is executed if (and only if) the expression evaluates to something other than false or nil.

The code must be separated from the expression with a newline or semicolon or the keyword then.

    # If x is less than 10, increment it

    if x < 10 # newline separator
    x += 1
    end
       
    if x < 10 then x += 1 end # then separator
       
    if x < 10 then
        x += 1
    end

else

  if expression
      code
  else
      code
  end

elsif

  if expression1
      code1
  elsif expression2
      code2
      .
      .
      .
  elsif expressionN
      codeN
  else
      code
  end

Return value

The return value of an if “statement” (i.e., the value that results from evaluating an if expression) is the value of the last expression in the code that was executed, or nil if no block of code was executed.

if As a Modifer

Instead of writing:
```
 if expression then code end
```
we can simply write:
```
 code if expression
```
unless

unless, as a statement or a modifier, is the opposite of if: it executes code only if an associated expression evaluates to false or nil. Its syntax is just like if, except that elsif clauses are not allowed:
```
 # single-way unless statement
 unless condition
     code
 end
    
 # two-way unless statement
 unless condition
     code
 else
     code
 end
    
 # unless modifier
 code unless condition
```

case

The case statement is a multiway conditional. There are two forms of this statement.

if/elsif/else

  name = case                             name =
  when x == 1 then "one"                  if x == 1 then "one" 
  when x == 2 then "two"                  elsif x == 2 then "two"
  when x == 3 then "three"                elsif x == 3 then "three"
  when x == 4 then "four"                 elsif x == 4 then "four"
  else "many"                             else "many"
  end                                     end

the then keyword replaced with a newline or semicolon

  case
  when x == 1
      "one"
  when x == 2
      "two"
  when x == 3
      "three"
  end

case equality

  name = 
  case x
  when 1              # Just the value to compare to x
      "one"
  when 2 then "two"   # Then keyword instead of newline
  when 3; "three"     # Semicolon instead of newline
  else "many"         # Optional else clause at end
  end

same as

  name = case
  when 1 === x then "one"
  when 2 === x then "two" 
  when 3 === x then "three" 
  else "many"
  end

eg.1

  # Take different actions depending on the class of x 
  puts case x
  when String then "string"
  when Numeric then "number"
  when TrueClass, FalseClass then "boolean"
  else "other"
  end

eg.2

  # Compute 2006 U.S. income tax using case and Range objects
  tax = case income
        when 0..7550
            income * 0.1
        when 7550..30650
            755 + (income-7550)*0.15
        when 30650..74200
            4220 + (income-30655)*0.25
        when 74200..154800
            15107.5 + (income-74201)*0.28
        when 154800..336550
            37675.5 + (income-154800)*0.33
        else
            97653 + (income-336550)*0.35
        end

eg.3

  # Get user's input and process it, ignoring comments and exiting
  # when the user enters the word "quit"
  while line=gets.chomp do    # Loop, asking the user for input each time
      case line
      when /^\s*#/            # If input looks like a comment...
          next                # skip to the next line.
      when /^quit$/i          # If input is "quit" (case insensitive)...
          break               # exit the loop.
      else                    # Otherwise...
          puts line.reverse   # reverse the user's input and print it.
      end
  end

Loops

while and until

while

  x = 10          # Initialize a loop counter variable
  while x >= 0 do # Loop while x is greater than or equal to 0
      puts x      # Print out the value of x
      x = x - 1    # Subtract 1 from x
  end             # The loop ends here

until

  # Count back up to 10 using an until loop
  x = 0           # Start at 0 (instead of -1)
  until x > 10 do # Loop until x is greater than 10
      puts x
      x = x + 1 
  end             # Loop ends here

while and until As Modifiers

while

  x = 0                       # Initialize loop variable
  puts x = x + 1 while x < 10 # Output and increment in a single expression

until

  a = [1,2,3]                 # Initialize an array
  puts a.pop until a.empty?   # Pop elements from array until empty

The for/in Loop

 for var in collection do
     body
 end

Altering Control Flow

return

Causes a method to exit and return a value to its caller.
break

Causes a loop (or iterator) to exit.
next

Causes a loop (or iterator) to skip the rest of the current iteration and move on to the next iteration.
redo

Restarts a loop or iterator from the begining.
retry

Restarts an iterator, reevaluating the entire expression. The retry keyword can aslo be used in exception handling.
throw/catch

A very general control struture that is named like and works like an exception progagation and handling mechanism. throw and catch are not Ruby’s primary exception mechanism (that would be raise and rescue). Instead, they are used as a kind of multilevel or labeled break.

Exceptions and Exception Handling

Exception Classes and Exception Objects

 Object
     +--Exception
         +--NoMemoryError
         +--ScriptError
         | +--LoadError
         | +--NotImplementedError
         | +--SyntaxError
     +--SecurityError        # Was a StandardError in 1.8
     +--SignalException
     | +--Interrupt
     +--SystemExit
     +--SystemStackError     # Was a StandardError in 1.8
     +--StandardError
         +--ArgumentError
         +--FiberError       # New in 1.9
         +--IOError
         | +--EOFError
         +--IndexError
         | +--KeyError       # New in 1.9
         | +--StopIteration  # New in 1.9
         +--LocalJumpError
         +--NameError
         | +--NoMethodError
         +--RangeError
         | +--FloatDomainError
         +--RegexpError
         +--RuntimeError
         +--SystemCallError
         +--ThreadError
         +--TypeError
         +--ZeroDivisionError

The Ruby Exception Class Hierarchy

The methods of exception objects
- message
  
  The message method returns a string that my provide human-readable details about what went wrong.
- backtrace
  
  The backtrace method returns an array of strings that represents the call stack at the point that exception was raised.
  
  Each element of the array is a string of the form:
```
  filename:linenumber:in `methodname'
```

Raising Exceptions with raise

The Kernel method raise raises an exception. fail is a synonym that is sometimes used when the exceptation is that the exception will cause the program to exit.
- raise with on arguments
  
  If raise is called with no arguments, it creates a new RuntimeError object (with no message) and raises it. Or, if raise is used with no arguments inside a rescue clause, it simply re-raises the exception that was being handled.
- raise with a single Exception object
  
  If raise is called with a single Exception object as its argument, it raises that exception. Despite its simplicity, this is not actually a common way to use raise.
- ‘raise` with a single string argument
  
  If raise is called with a single string argument, it creates a new RuntimeError exception object, with the specified string as its message, and raises that exception. This is a very common way to use raise.
- raise with an object that has an exception method
  
  If the first argument to raise is an object that has an exception method, then raise invokes that method and raises the Exception object that its returns. The Exception class defines an exception method, so you can specify the class object for any kind of exception as the first argument to raise.
  
  raise accepts a string as its optional second argument to use as the exception message.
  
  raise also accepts an optional third argument. An array of strings may be specified here, and they will be used as the backtrace for the exception object. If this third argument is not specified, raise sets the backtrace of the exception itself (using the Kernel method caller).
Handling Exceptions with rescue

raise is a Kernel method.

A rescue clause, by contrast, is a fundamental part of the Ruby language.

rescue is not a statement in its own right, but rather a clause that can be attached to other Ruby statements.

Most commonly, a rescue clause is attached to a begin statement.

The begin statement exists simply to delimit the block of code within which exceptions are to be handled.
```
 begin
     # Any number of Ruby statements go here.
     # Usually, they are executed without exceptions and # execution continues after the end statement.
 rescue
     # This is the rescue clause; exception-handling code goes here.
     # If an exception is raised by the code above, or propagates up
     # from one of the methods called above, then execution jumps here.
 end
```
- Naming the exception object
  
  In a rescue clause, the global variable $! refers to the Exception object that is being handled.
  
  If your program includes the line:
```
  require 'English'
```
  then you can use the global variable $ERROR_INFO instead.
  
  A better alternative to $! or $ERROR_INFO is to specify a variable name for the exception object in the rescue itself:
```
  rescue => ex
```
  The statements of this rescue clause can now use the varible ex to refer to the Exception object that describes the exception.
```
  begin                                 # Handle exceptions in this block
      x = factorial(-1)                 # Note illegal argument
  rescue => ex                          # Store exception in variable ex
      puts "#{ex.class}: #{ex.message}" # Handle exception by printing message
  end                                   # End the begin/rescue block
```
- Handling exceptions by type
  
  The rescue clause show here handle any exception that is a StandardError (or subclass) and ignore any Exception object that is not StandardError.
  
  If you want to handle nonstandard exceptions outside the StandardError hierarchy, or if you want to handle only specific types of exceptions, you must include one or more exception classes in the rescue clause.
```
  rescue Exception

  rescue ArgumentError => e

  rescue ArgumentError, TypeError => error
```
The else Clause

The else clause is an alternative to the rescue clauses; it is used if none of the rescue clauses are needed.

The code in an else clause is executed if the code in the body of the begin statement runs to completion without exceptions.
The ensure Clause

The ensure clause contains code that always runs, no matter what happens with the code following begin:
- If the code runs to completion, then control jumps to the else clause—if there is one—and then to the ensure clause.
- If the code executes a return statement, then the execution skip the else clause and jump directly to the ensure clause before returing.
- If the code following begin raises an exception, then control jumps to the appropriate rescue clause, then to the ensure clause.
- If there no rescue clause, or if no rescue clause can handle the exception, then control jumps directly to the ensure clause. The code in the ensure clause is executed before the exception propagates out to containing blocks or up the call stack.
The purpose of the ensure clause is to ensure that housekeeping details such as closing files, disconnecting database connections, and committing or aborting transactions get taken care of.

rescue As a Statement Modifier

 # Compute factorial of x, or use 0 if the method raises an exception 
 y = factorial(x) rescue 0

BEGIN and END

BEGIN and END are reserved words in Ruby that declare code to be executed at the very beginning and very end of a Ruby program.

If there is more than one BEGIN statement in a program, they are executed in the order which the interpreter encounters them.

If there is more than one END statement, they are executed in the reverse of the order in which they are encountered—that is, the first one is executed last.

These statements are not commonly used in Ruby. They are inherited from Perl, which in turn inherited them from the awk text-processing language.

    BEGIN { # The curly braces are required
        # Global initialization code goes here
    }
    
    END {
        # Global shutdown code goes here
    }

Threads, Fibers, and Continuations

Threads for Concurrency

A thread of execution is a sequence of Ruby statements that run (or apear to run) in parallel with the main sequence of statements that the interpreter is running.

Threads are represented by Thread objects, but they can also be thought of as control structures for concurrency.

Call Thread.new and associate a block with it to create new threads that will start running the code in the block.

 # This method expects an array of filenames.
 # It returns an array of strings holding the content of the named files.
 # The method creates one thread for each named file.
 def readfiles(filenames)
     # Create an array of threads from the array of filenames.
     # Each thread starts reading a file.
     threads = filenames.map do |f|
         Thread.new { File.read(f) }
     end
    
     # Now create an array of file contents by calling the value 
     # method of each thread. This method blocks, if necessary, 
     # until the thread exits with a value.
     threads.map {|t| t.value }
 end

Fibers for Coroutines

The name “fiber” has been used elsewhere for a kind of lightweight thread, but Ruby’s fibers are better described as coroutines or, more accurately, semi-coroutines.

The most common use for coroutines is to implement generators: objects that can compute a partial result, yield the result back to the caller, and save the state of the computaiton so that the caller can resume that compuation to obtain the next result.

In Ruby, the Fiber class is used to enable the automatic conversion of internal iterators, such as the each method, into enumerators or external iterators.

Create a fiber with Fiber.new, and associate a block with it to specify the code that the fiber to run.

Unlike a thread, the body of a fiber does not start executing right away.

To run a fiber, call the resume method of the Fiber object that represent it.

The first time resume is called on a fiber, control is transferred to the begining of the fiber body.

That fiber then runs unitl it reachs the end of the body, or unitl it executes the class method Fiber.yield.

The Fiber.yield method transfer control back to the caller and makes the call to resume return. It also saves the state of the fiber, so that the next call to resume makes the fiber pick up where it left off.
```
     f = Fiber.new {                 # Line 1: Create a new fiber
         puts "Fiber says Hello"     # Line 2:
         Fiber.yield                 # Line 3:
         puts "Fiber says Goodbye"   # Line 4: goto line 11
     }                               # Line 5:
                                     # Line 6:
     puts "Caller says Hello"        # Line 7:
     f.resume                        # Line 8: goto line 2
     puts "Caller says Goodbye"      # Line 9:
     f.resume                        # Line 10: goto line 4
                                     # Line 11:
```
- Fiber arguments and return values
  
  Fibers and their callers can exchange data through the arguments and return values of resume and yield.
  
  The arguments to the first call to resume are passed to the block associated with the fiber: they become the values of the block parameters.
  
  On subsequent calls, the arguments to resume become the return value of Fiber.yield.
  
  Conversely, any arguments to Fiber.yield become the return value of resume.
  
  And when the block exits, the value of the last expression evaluated also becomes the return value of resume.
```
  f = Fiber.new do |message|
      puts "Caller said: #{message}" 
      message2 = Fiber.yield("Hello") # "Hello" returned by first resume
      puts "Caller said: #{message2}"
      "Fine"                          # "Fine" returned by second resume
  end
        
  response = f.resume("Hello")         # "Hello" passed to block
  puts "Fiber said: #{response}"
  response2 = f.resume("How are you?") # "How are you?" returned by Fiber.yield 
  puts "Fiber said: #{response2}"
```
- Implementing generators with fibers
```
  class FibonacciGenerator
      def initialize
          @x,@y = 0,1
          @fiber = Fiber.new do
              loop do
                  @x,@y = @y, @x+@y
                  Fiber.yield @x
              end
          end
      end
        
      def next    # Return the next Fibonacci number
          @fiber.resume
      end
        
      def rewind  # Restart the sequence
          @x,@y = 0,1
      end
  end
        
  g = FibonacciGenerator.new     # Create a generator
  10.times { print g.next, " " } # Print first 10 numbers
  g.rewind; puts                 # Start over, on a new line
  10.times { print g.next, " " } # Print first 10 again
```
Continuations

A continuation is another complex and obscure control structure that most programmers will never need to use.

A continuation takes the form of the Kernel method callcc and the Continuation object.

Continuations are part of the core platformin Ruby 1.8, but they have been replaced by fibers and moved to the standard library in Ruby 1.9.

References

The Ruby Programming Language by David Flanagan and Yukihiro Matsumoto