1. Numbers

    Ruby includes five built-in classes for representing numbers, and standard library includes three more numeric classes.

    • Numeric

      • Integer

        • Fixnum

        • Bignum

      • Float

      • Complex (standard library)
      • BigDecimal (standard library)
      • Rational (standard library)

  2. Text

    Text is represented in Ruby by objects of the String class.

    • Single-quoted string literals

      In single-quoted strings, a backslash is not special if the character that follows it is anything other than a quote or a backslash.

        > 'a\b' == 'a\\b'
  => true

    • Double-quoted string literals

      Double-quoted literals support quite a few backslash escape sequences, such as \n for newline, \t for tab, and \" for a quotation mark.

      • String Interpolation

        Double-quoted literals may also inlcude arbitrary Ruby expression that begin with the # character and are enclosed within curly braces:

          "360 degrees=#{2*Math::PI} radians" # "360 degrees=6.28318530717959 radians"

        When the expression to be interpolated into the string literal is simply a reference to a global, instance, or class variable, then the curly braces may be omitted:

          $salutation = 'hello' # Define a global variable 
  "#$salutation world" # Use it in a double-quoted string

        Use a backslash to escape the # character if you do not want it to be treated specially. Note that this only needs to be done if the character after # is {, $, or @:

          "My phone #: 555-1234" # No escape needed
  "Use \#{ to interpolate expressions" # Escape #{ with backslash

    • Unicode escapes

      In Ruby 1.9, double-quoted strings can include arbitrary Unicode characters with \u escapes.

      Strings that use the \u escape are encoded uisng the Unicode UTF-8 encoding.

      1. \u

        In its simplest form, \u is followed by exactly four hexadecimal digits (letters can be upper- or lowercase), which represent a Unicode codepoint between 0000 and FFFF.

         "\u00D7" # => "×": leading zeros cannot be droppe
  "\u20ac" # => "€": lowercase letters are okay

      2. u{}

        A second form of the \u escape is followed by an open curly brace, one to six hexadecimal digits, and a close curly brace.

        The digits between the braces can represent any Unicode codepoint between 0 and 10FFFF.

         "\u{A5}" # => "¥": same as "\u00A5"
 "\u{3C0}" # Greek lowercase pi: same as "\u03C0" 
 "\u{10ffff}" # The largest Unicode codepoint

        The \u{} form of this escape allow multiple codepoints to be embedded within a single escape.

         money = "\u{20AC 20 A3 20 A5}" # => "€ £ ¥"

    • String Opertors

      +, <<, *,==,!=,<,<=,>,>=,[]

      casecmp,downcase,upcase,each_byte,each_char,each_line

  3. Arrays

    An array is a sequence of values that allows values to be accessed by their position, or index, in the sequence.

    In Ruby, the first value in an array has index 0.

    The size and length methods return the number of elements in an array.

    The last element of the array is at index size-1.

    Negative index values count from the end of the array, so the last element of an array can also be accessed with an index of –1 The second-to-last has an index of –2, and so on

    If you attempt to read an element beyond the end of an array (with an index >= size) or before the beginning of an array (with an index < -size), Ruby simply returns nil and does not throw an exception.

    +,-,<<,|,’&`

    clear,each_index,empty?,sort,sort!,include?

  4. Hashes

    A hash (a.k.a maps, associative arrays) is a data struture that maintains a set of objects known as keys, and associates a value with each key.

    • Hash Literals

        numbers = { "one" => 1, "two" => 2, "three" => 3 }
  numbers = { :one => 1, :two => 2, :three => 3 }
  numbers = { :one, 1, :two, 2, :three, 3 } # (Deprecated!) Same, but harder to read
  numbers = { :one => 1, :two => 2, } # Extra comma ignored
  numbers = { one: 1, two: 2, three: 3 } # Ruby 1.9+

  5. Ranges

    A Range object represents the values between a start value and an end value.

    Range literals are written by placing two or three dots between the start and end value.

     1..10       # The integers 1 through 10, including 10
 1.0...10.0  # The numbers between 1.0 and 10.0, excluding 10.0 itself.

    member?,include?,to_a,===

  6. Symbols

    Symbols are immutable interned strings, written as colon-prefixed identifiers.

  7. True, False, and Nil

    true and false are the two Boolean values, and they represent truth and falsehood, yes and no, on and off.

    nil is a special value reseved to indicate the absence of value.

    TrueClass->true, FalseClass->flase, NilClass->nil.

    Note that true, false, and nil refer to objects, not numbers.

    false and nil are not the same thing as 0, and true is not the same thing as 1.

    When Ruby requires a Boolean value, nil behaves like false, and any value other than nil or false behaves like true.

  8. Objects

    Ruby is a very pure object-oriented language: all values are objects, and there is no distinction between primitive types and object types as there are in many other languages.

    In Ruby, all objects inherit from a class named Object (BasicObject?) and share the methods defined by that class.

    • Object References

      When we work with objects in Ruby, we are really working with object references.

      When we assign a vlaue to a variable, we are not copying an object “into” that variable; we are merely storing a reference to an object into that variable.

      In Ruby, method arguments are passed by value rather than by reference, but that the values passed are object references.

        s = "Ruby"      # Create a String object. Store a reference to it in s.
  t = s           # Copy the reference to t. s and t both refer to the same object. 
  t[-1] = ""      # Modify the object through the reference in t.
  print s         # Access the modified object through s. Prints "Rub".
  t = "Java"      # t now refers to a different object.
  print s,t       # Prints "RubJava".

    • Object Lifetime

      The new and initialze methods provide the default technique for creating new classes, but classes may aslo define other methods, known as “factory methods”.

      Ruby uses a technique called garbage collection to automatically destroy objects that are no longer needed.

      An object becomes a candidate for garbage collection when it is unreachable—when there are no remaining references to the object except from other unreachable objects.

      But garbage collection does not mean that memory leaks are impossible: any code that creates long-lived references to objects that would otherwise be short-lived can be a source of memory leaks.

    • Object Identify

      Every object has an object identifier, a Fixnum, that you can obtain with the object_id method.

      The value returned by this method is constant and unique for the life of the object.

      The method id is a deprecated synonym for object_id.

      __id__ is a valid synonym for object_id. It exists as a fallback, so you can access an object’s ID even if the object_id method has been undefined or overridden.

      The Object class implements the hash method to simply return an object’s ID.

    • Object Class and Object Type

      1. Determine the class of an object

         o = "test"                      # This is a value
 o.class                       # String: o is a String object
 o.class.superclass            # Object: superclass of String is Object
 o.class.superclass.superclass # nil: Object has no superclass

        In Ruby 1.9, Object is no longer the true root of the class hierachy.

         # Ruby 1.9 only
 Object.superclass
 BasicObject.superclass

      2. Check the class of an object

        • ==

            o.class == String       # true if o is a String

        • instance_of? method

          *The instance_of? method does the same thing and is a litte more elegant than ==.

            o.instance_of? String   # true if o is a String

        • is_a? and kind_of?

          Use the is_a? method, or its synonym kind_of? to test if an object is an instance of any subclass of that class.

            x = 1                  # This is the value we're working with
  x.instance_of? Fixnum  # true: is an instance of Fixnum
  x.instance_of? Numeric # false: instance_of? doesn't check inheritance
  x.is_a? Fixnum         # true: x is a Fixnum
  x.is_a? Integer        # true: x is an Integer
  x.is_a? Numeric        # true: x is a Numeric
  x.is_a? Comparable     # true: works with mixin modules, too
  x.is_a? Object         # true for any value of x

          The Class class defines the === operator in such a way that it can used in place of is_a? but is probaly less readable.

            Numeric === x          # true: x is_a Numeric

      3. Ducking Type

        Every object has a well-defined class in Ruby, and that class never changes during the lifetime of the object.

        The type of an object is related to its class, but the class is only part of an object’s type.

        The type of an object is the set of methods it can it can respond to.

        In Ruby, we often don’t care about the class of an object, we just want to know whether we can invoke some method on it.

        Focusing on types rather than classes leads to a programming style known in Ruby as “ducking typing”.

         o.respond_to? :"<<"    # true if o has an << operator

    • Object Equality

      1. The equal? method

        The equal? method is defined by Object to test whether two values refer to exactly the same object.

         a.object_id == b.object_id # Works like a.equal?(b)

      2. The == operator

        The == operator is the most common way to test for equality. In Object class, it simply a synonym for equal?, and it tests whether two objet references are identical.

        Most classes redefine this operator to allow distinct instances to be tested for equality:

        a = “Ruby” # One String object b = “Ruby” # A different String object with the same content a.equal?(b) # false: a and b do not refer to the same object a == b # true: but these two distinct objects have equal values

        Equality for Java Programmers: Ruby’s convention is just about the opposite of Java’s.

      3. The === operator

        The === operator is commonly called the “case equality” operator and is used to test whether the target value of a case statement matches any of the when clauses of that statement.

        Range defines === to test whether a value falls within the range.

        Regexp defines === to test whether a string matches the regular expression.

        Class defines === to test whether an object is an instance of that class.

        In Ruby 1.9, Symbol defines === to return true if the righthand operand is the same symbol as the left or if it is a string holding the same text.

         (1..10) === 5       # true: 5 is in the range 1..10
 /\d+/ === "123"     # true: the string matches the regular expression
 String === "s"      # true: "s" is an instance of the class String 
 :s === "s"          # true in Ruby 1.9

    • Object Order

      • <=>

        In Ruby, classes define an ordering by implementing the <=> operator.

        -1: less than, 0: equal, 1: greater than, nil: cannot be meaningfully compared

          1 <=> 5     # -1
  5 <=> 5     # 0
  9 <=> 5     # 1
  "1" <=> 5   # nil: integers and strings are not comparable

      • Comparable module as a mixin

        The <=> operator is all that is needed to compare values. But it isn’t particularly intuitive.

          < Less than
  <= Less than or equal
  == Equal
  >= Greater than or equal
  > Greater than

        Comparable also defines a useful comparison method named between?:

          1.between?(0,10)    # true: 0 <= 1 <= 10

        If the <=> operator return nil, all the comparision operators dervided from it return false.

          nan = 0.0/0.0;              # zero divided by zero is not-a-number
  nan < 0                     # false: it is not less than zero
  nan > 0                     # false: it is not greater than zero
  nan == 0                    # false: it is not equal to zero
  nan == nan                  # false: it is not even equal to itself!
  nan.equal?(nan)             # this is true, of course

        Note that defining <=> and including the Comparable module defines a == operator for your class.

    • Object Conversion

      • Explicit conversions

        Classes define explicit conversion methods for use by application code that needs to convert a value to another representation.

        to_s, to_i, to_f, and to_a to convert to String, Integer, Float, and Array.

        Built-in methods do not typically invoke these methods for you.

        • to_s and inspect

          to_s is generally intended to return a human-readable representation of the object, suitalbe for end users.

          inspect is tended for debugging use, and should return a representation that is helpful to Ruby developers.

          The default inspect method, inherited from Object, simply call to_s.

      • Implicit conversions

        Sometimes a class has strong characteristics of some other class.

        to_str, to_int, to_ary, to_hash, try_convert

      • Conversion functions

        The Kernel module defines four conversion methods that behave as global conversion functions.

        Array, Float, Integer, String

      • Arithmetic operator type coercions

        Numeric types define a conversoin method named coerce to convert the argument to the same type as the numeric object on which the method is invoked, or to convert both objects to some more general compatible type.

        The coecre method always returns an array that holds two numeric values of the same type.

      • Boolean type convrsion

        to_b

        There are no implicit conversions that convert other values to true or false.

        Ruby’s Boolean operators and its conditional and looping constructs that use Boolean expressions can work with values other than true and false.

        In Boolean expressions, any value other than false or nil behaves like (but is not converted to) true. nil, on the other hand behaves like false.

    • Copying Objects

      • clone, dup

        The Object class defines two closely related methods clone and dup for copying objects.

        If copied object includes one internal state that refers to other objects, only the object references are copied, not the referenced objects themselves.

        • clone copies both the frozen and tainted state of an object, whereas dup only copies the tainted state; calling dup on a frozen object returns an unfrozen copy.

        • clone copies any singleton methods of the object, whereas dup does not.

      • initialize_copy

        initialize_copy method could recursively copy the internal data of an object so the resulting object is not a simple shallow copy of the original.

    • Marshaling Objects

      Mrshal.dump,Marshal.load

    • Freezing Objects

      Any object may be frozen by calling its freeze method.

      A frozen object becomes immutable.

      Freezing a class object prevents the addition of any methods to the class.

      Once frozen, there is no way to “thaw” an object.

      If you copy a frozen object with clone, the copy will also be frozen.

      If you copy a frozen object with dup, however, the copy will not frozen.

        s = "ice"     # Strings are mutable objects
  s.freeze      # Make this string immutable
  s.frozen ?    # true: it has been frozen
  s.upcase!     # TypeError: can't modify frozen string 
  s[0] = "ni"   # TypeError: can't modify frozen string

    • Tainting Objects

      taint, untaint, $$SAFE

References