TCP/IP: Link Layer

In the world of IEEE standards, standards with the prefix 802 define the operations of LANs and MANs. The most popular 802 standards today include 802.3 (essentially Ethernet) and 802.11 (WLAN/Wi-Fi).

The Ethernet frame begins with a Preamble area used by the receiving interface’s circuitry to determine when a frame is arriving and to determine the amount of time between encoded bits (called clock recovery).

The preamble is a recognizable pattern (0xAA typically), which the receiver can use to recover the clock by the time the start frame delimiter (SFD) is found. The SFD has the fixed value 0xAB.

All Ethernet (802.3) frames are based on a common format.

This basic frame format includes 48-bit (6-byte) Destination (DST) and Source (SRC) Address fields, known by other names such as MAC address, link-layer address, 802 address, hardware address, or physical address. The destination address is also allowed to address more than one station, called broadcast or multicast.

Following the source address is a Type field that doubles as a Length field. Ordinarily, it identifies the type of data that follows the header. Popular values used with TCP/IP networks include IPv4 (0x0800), IPv6 (0x86DD), and ARP (0x0806).

The value 0x8100 indicates a Q-tagged frame (i.e., one that can carry a virtual LAN or VLAN ID according to the 802.1q standard).

The size of a basic Ethernet frame is 1518 bytes, but the more recent standard extended this size to 2000 bytes.

Following the Destination and Source Address fields, [802.3-2008] provides for a variable number of tags that contain various protocol fields defined by other IEEE standards. The most common of these are the tags used by 802.1p and 802.1q, which provide for virtual LANs and some quality-of-service (QoS) indicators.

Following the fields discussed so far is the data area or payload portion of the frame. This is the area where higher-layer PDUs such as IP datagrams are placed.

The payload sometimes is padded (appended) with 0 bytes to ensure that the overall frame meets the minimum length requirements.

The final Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) or Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field of the Ethernet frame format follows the payload area and provides an integrity check on the frame.

With the growing use of switched Ethernet, it has become possible to interconnect every computer at a site on the same Ethernet LAN.

The advantage of doing this is that any host can directly communicate with any other host, using IP and other network-layer protocols, and requiring little or no administrator configuration.

In addition, broadcast and multicast traffic is distributed to all hosts that may wish to receive it without having to set up special multicast routing protocols.

While these represent some of the advantages of placing many stations on the same Ethernet, having broadcast traffic go to every computer can create an undesirable amount of network traffic when many hosts use broadcast, and there may be some security reasons to disallow complete any-to-any station communication.

To address some of these problems with running large, multiuse switched networks, IEEE extended the 802 LAN standards with a capability called virtual LANs (VLANs) in a standard known as 802.1q [802.1Q-2005]. Compliant Ethernet switches isolate traffic among hosts to common VLANs.

Note that because of this isolation, two hosts attached to the same switch but operating on different VLANs require a router between them for traffic to flow.

Combination switch/router devices have been created to address this need, and ultimately the performance of routers has been improved to match the performance of VLAN switching.

Thus, the appeal of VLANs has diminished somewhat, in favor of modern high-performance routers. Nonetheless, they are still used, remain popular in some environments, and are important to understand.

Several methods are used to specify the station-to-VLAN mapping.

When stations in different VLANs are attached to the same switch, the switch ensures that traffic does not leak from one VLAN to another, irrespective of the types of Ethernet interfaces being used by the stations.

When multiple VLANs must span multiple switches (trunking), it becomes necessary to label Ethernet frames with the VLAN to which they belong before they are sent to another switch.

In many cases, the administrator must configure the ports of the switch to be used to send 802.1p/q frames by enabling trunking on the appropriate ports. To make this job somewhat easier, some switches support a native VLAN option on trunked ports, meaning that untagged frames are by default associated with the native VLAN. Trunking ports are used to interconnect VLAN-capable switches, and other ports are typically used to attach stations. Some switches also support proprietary methods for VLAN trunking (e.g., the Cisco Inter-Switch Link (ISL) protocol).

Some systems equipped with multiple network interfaces are capable of bonding or link aggregation.

With link aggregation, two or more interfaces are treated as one in order to achieve greater reliability through redundancy or greater performance by splitting (striping) data across multiple interfaces.

The IEEE Amendment 802.1AX [802.1AX-2008] defines the most common method for performing link aggregation and the Link Aggregation Control Protocol (LACP) to manage such links. LACP uses IEEE 802 frames of a particular format (called LACPDUs).

Using link aggregation on Ethernet switches that support it can be a costeffective alternative to investing in switches with high-speed network ports. If more than one port can be aggregated to provide adequate bandwidth, higherspeed ports may not be required.

Link aggregation may be supported not only on network switches but across multiple network interface cards (NICs) on a host computer.

Often, aggregated ports must be of the same type, operating in the same mode (i.e., half- or full-duplex).

Linux has the capability to implement link aggregation (bonding) across different types of devices using the following commands:

When Ethernet was first developed, it operated only in half-duplex mode using a shared cable. That is, data could be sent only one way at one time, so only one station was sending a frame at any given point in time. With the development of switched Ethernet, the network was no longer a single piece of shared wire, but instead many sets of links. As a result, multiple pairs of stations could exchange data simultaneously.

In Linux, the ethtool program can be used to query whether full duplex is supported and whether it is being used:

Operating an extended Ethernet LAN in full-duplex mode and across segments of different speeds may require the switches to buffer (store) frames for some period of time.

For example, when multiple stations send to the same destination (called output port contention).

One way to mitigate this situation is to apply flow control to senders (i.e., slow them down).

Some Ethernet switches (and interfaces) implement flow control by sending special signal frames between switches and NICs.

Flow control signals to the sender that it must slow down its transmission rate, although the specification leaves the details of this to the implementation. Ethernet uses an implementation of flow control called PAUSE messages (also called PAUSE frames), specified by 802.3x [802.3-2008].

There is one common overall frame format for 802.11 networks but multiple types of frames. Not all the fields are present in every type of frame.

The frame shown includes a preamble for synchronization, which depends on the particular variant of 802.11 being used.

Next, the Physical Layer Convergence Procedure (PLCP) header provides information about the specific physical layer in a somewhat PHY-independent way.

The MAC PDU (MPDU) corresponds to a frame similar to Ethernet, but with some additional fields.

There has been considerable evolution in the security model for 802.11 networks.

In its early days, 802.11 used an encryption method known as wired equivalent privacy (WEP).

Industry responded with Wi-Fi protected access (WPA), which replaced the way keys are used with encrypted blocks.

Both WEP and WPA use the RC4 encryption algorithm. WPA2 uses the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) algorithm.

The IEEE is working on the 802.11s standard, which covers Wi-Fi mesh operation. With mesh operation, wireless stations can act as data-forwarding agents (like APs).

The standard is not yet complete as of writing (mid-2011). The draft version of 802.11s defines the Hybrid Wireless Routing Protocol (HWRP), based in part on the IETF standards for Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing [RFC3561] and the Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) protocol [RFC3626].

The LCP portion of PPP is used to establish and maintain a low-level two-party communication path over a point-to-point link. PPP’s operation therefore need be concerned only with two ends of a single link; it does not need to handle the problem of mediating access to a shared resource like the MAC-layer protocols of Ethernet and Wi-Fi.

PPP generally, and LCP more specifically, imposes minimal requirements on the underlying point-to-point link. The link must support bidirectional operation (LCP uses acknowledgments) and operate either asynchronously or synchronously.

Typically, LCP establishes a link using a simple bit-level framing format based on the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) protocol.

The PPP frame format, in the common case when HDLC-like framing is used, is surrounded by two 1-byte Flag fields containing the fixed value 0x7E. These fields are used by the two stations on the ends of the point-to-point link for finding the beginning and end of the frame.

A small problem arises if the value 0x7E itself occurs inside the frame. This is handled in one of two ways, depending on whether PPP is operating over an asynchronous or a synchronous link.

After the first Flag field, PPP adopts the HDLC Address (Addr) and Control fields.

Because both the Address and Control fields are fixed constants in PPP, they are often omitted during transmission with an option called Address and Control Field Compression (ACFC), which essentially eliminates the two fields.

The Protocol field of the PPP frame indicates the type of data being carried.

The final portion of the PPP frame contains a 16-bit FCS (a CRC16, with generator polynomial 10001000000100001) covering the entire frame except the FCS field itself and Flag bytes.